The role of TGF-β in cancer is complex and context-dependent. In early stages of tumorigenesis, TGF-β acts as a tumor suppressor by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis. However, in later stages, many tumors develop mechanisms to evade TGF-β's suppressive effects, and TGF-β can promote tumor progression and metastasis by enhancing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, and angiogenesis. This dual role makes TGF-β a challenging target for cancer therapy.
