Apoptosis can be inhibited through various mechanisms, including:
Bcl-2 family proteins: These proteins regulate the mitochondrial pathway by controlling the release of cytochrome c. Anti-apoptotic members like Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL prevent apoptosis by inhibiting the pro-apoptotic members such as Bax and Bak. IAPs (Inhibitors of Apoptosis Proteins): These proteins directly inhibit caspases, preventing them from executing the apoptotic process. Survivin: This protein inhibits caspase activation and also plays a role in cell division, thus promoting cell survival. FLIP (FLICE-inhibitory protein): FLIP inhibits the extrinsic pathway by preventing the activation of caspase-8. Signal transduction pathways: Pathways such as the PI3K/Akt and NF-κB pathways promote cell survival by activating anti-apoptotic proteins and inhibiting pro-apoptotic signals.
